Dugongs used to be harvested and sold as meat in fish markets up until 1970. Incidental mortality in illegal fishing nets and abandoned fishing gear has been the biggest recent threat. Other threats include vessel strikes, degradation of seagrass beds due to coastal development, and water pollution. Since monitoring began in 2001, 175 cases of Dugong mortality have been investigated by EAD. Mortality incidence is frequently reported during the winter months from November to March which coincides with higher seagrass biomass, large congregations of Dugongs and intense fishing activities. The main cause of mortality in the last 16 years has found to be drowning in abandoned, lost and/or illegal fishing nets (69.7%) followed by vessel strikes (13.7%). However, in 2010-2015, the cause of death due to drowning increased to 85%, indicating that Dugong mortality in the UAE is a human/wildlife conflict due to irresponsible fishing practices, use of illegal nets and the inadequate implementation of regulations (EAD 2015). A total of 22 incidences of Dugong mortality were reported and investigated by EAD during 2015. Three mortalities were reported from the Eastern Region, six from the Central Region and the remaining 13 from the Western Region. Eleven (50%) were due to drowning in nets but the cause of death could not be ascertained for the remainder. No mortalities resulting from vessel strikes were observed in 2015 (EAD 2015). Boat strikes have decreased inside protected areas due to the implementation of controls. However, adult Dugongs normally avoid noise, so strikes are mainly an issue for the more curious subadults.

There is no information on threats to this occasional visitor to UAE territorial waters.

Sheppard et al. (2010) reported on the unprecedented changes to Arabian Gulf marine and coastal habitats over the past decade, which has seen rapid industrial development, large-scale land reclamation, coastal infrastructure, tourism and housing development, and long-term fisheries activities, all of which have caused widespread loss and degradation of benthic habitats. Seagrass habitats in the Arabian Gulf have suffered as a consequence though there are no published reports on the scale of these impacts or the extent and rates of decline (Erftemeijer and Shuail, 2012). The species faces a range of significant threats in UAE waters; Boat strikes In Abu Dhabi, it was found that 20% of all stranded turtles died from vessel strikes. EPAA Sharjah is in the process of concluding a three-year study on the impact of boat strikes on marine turtles, including this species (EAD 2016). Boat strike occurrence on the eastern coast of Sharjah is also frequent. Fisheries bycatch The full extent of impact on green turtle populations is not yet well understood in the UAE, but recent assessments in the Gulf region raise concerns about the potentially high impact that fisheries bycatch may have on turtles (83.6% of bycatch composition, representing ~ 4,726 captures year; Abdulqader et al. 2017).On the east coast, fishers report that turtles are often caught, but that they are released alive. Entanglement and ingestion of marine debris The understanding of the level of impact of marine debris and entanglement on marine turtle is limited for the region, but recent findings of marine debris ingestion by green turtles indicate a potentially high level of interaction between these turtles and marine debris along the Gulf of Oman coast of the UAE (Yaghmour et al. 2018a,b).In Abu Dhabi, 52% of marine turtle mortalities were attributed to entanglement in abandoned fishing gear. A recent EPAA study found that sea turtles may also be caught in abandoned gargoor fish traps (EAD 2016, Yaghmour et al. 2018b). Coastal development Green turtles are typically associated with seagrass beds that grow in shallow waters and therefore are affected by coastal development. Turtles have been found within water intakes of desalination plants but it is not known if this species is impacted by this threat. Natural threats relevant to the UAE Green turtles are also subject to natural threats. The Arabian Gulf undergoes extreme water and air temperature fluctuations, which present climate-related challenges to species diversity and distribution. Many smaller turtles strand in the Arabian Gulf from cold-stunning in the winter months (Robinson et al. 2017), although these threats may not be so significant to this species. At the global scale, the species may be impacted by a range of threats, however, the impact of these threats on animals found in UAE waters is not known. Pollution and pathogens Marine pollution and debris that affect marine turtles (i.e. through ingestion or entanglement, disorientation caused by artificial lights), as well as impacts of pervasive pathogens (e.g. Fibropapilloma virus causing Fibropapillomatosis) on turtle health, although there are no records at present of this virus in UAE waters.The EPAA Sharjah is in the process of concluding a three-year study on the impact of oil spills on marine turtles which include this species. Marine debris (plastics, ropes, is a significant threat to this species. A study from the east coast found 86% of dead individuals found contained marine debris. Climate change Current and future impacts from climate change on marine turtles and their habitats (e.g. increasing sand temperatures on nesting beaches affecting hatchling sex ratios, sea level rise, storm frequency and intensity affecting nesting habitats, etc.). A primary turtle foraging habitat, seagrass beds, is known to be sensitive to increasing temperatures (Arias-Ortiz et al. 2018).

The main threats to the North West Indian Ocean Loggerhead subpopulation are represented by fisheries (as bycatch), egg predation and collection, and coastal development (Hamann et al. 2013), although quantification of the impact to the subpopulation within UAE marine territory is not available.Threats to Loggerheads vary in time and space, and in relative impact to populations. Threat categories affecting marine turtles, including Loggerheads, were described by Wallace et al. (2011) as: Boat strike In Abu Dhabi, it was found that 20% of all stranded turtles died from vessel strikes (EAD 2016). The EPAA Sharjah is in the process of concluding a three-year study on the impact of boat strikes on marine turtles, including this species. Fisheries bycatch and targeted fisheries In Abu Dhabi, 52% of marine turtle mortalities were attributed to entanglement, however, no loggerheads were found in this study (EAD 2016). The impact of incidental capture of marine turtles in fishing gear targeting other species (bycatch) is not known. The impact of ghost fishing gear requires further research. Coastal development There has been rapid and extensive coastal development within UAE coastal areas. It is likely that this has impacted turtle habitat, but there is no information available on this. In addition, human-induced alteration of coastal environments due to construction, dredging, beach modification, etc. may impact this species.Turtles have been found within water intakes of desalination plants but it is not known if this species is impacted by this threat. Pollution and pathogens Marine pollution and debris affect marine turtles (i.e., through ingestion or entanglement, disorientation caused by artificial lights). The EPAA Sharjah is in the process of concluding a three-year study on the impact of oil spills on marine turtles which include this species. Oil spills represent a significant threat to marine turtles. The impacts of pervasive pathogens (for example, the fibropapilloma virus) on turtle health in the UAE requires further research. Climate change Current and future impacts from climate change on marine turtles and their habitats (increasing sand temperatures on nesting beaches affecting hatchling sex ratios, sea level rise, storm frequency and intensity affecting nesting habitats, etc.) in the UAE requires further research, especially with regard to the already high surface water temperature, as the Arabian Gulf regularly experiences sustained sea surface temperatures of over 30'°C (Pilcher et al. 2014).The relative impacts of individual threats to all Loggerhead subpopulations were assessed by Wallace et al. (2011). Fisheries bycatch was classified as the highest threat to Loggerheads globally, followed by coastal development and human consumption of eggs, meat, or other products. Due to lack of information, pollution and pathogens were only scored as affecting three subpopulations and climate change was only scored for two subpopulations. Enhanced efforts to assess and reduce the impacts of these threats on Loggerheads should be a high priority for future conservation efforts.

Information pertaining to threats specific to the UAE are unavailable. This species is impacted by bycatch fisheries that are active elsewhere in its range. Marine habitats in the Gulf are experiencing high levels of disturbance and quickly deteriorating due to major impacts from development activities (including dredging and reclamation), desalination plants, industrial activities, habitat destruction through the removal of shallow productive areas and major shipping lanes (Sheppard et al. 2010). Corals in the UAE and Arabian Gulf have severely declined due to the increasing frequency of mass bleaching events caused by rising water temperatures, which is a consequence of climate change, as well as pervasive coastal development (Riegl et al. 2018, Burt et al. 2019).

In the UAE, sharks have been impacted by targeted commercial fisheries until 2014 when a ban on export of sharks was imposed (Ministry of Climate Change and Environment). Sharks continue to be impacted by artisanal and bycatch fisheries (Annual Fisheries Statistical Report for Abu Dhabi Emirate 2001-2018), though catch data are not species-specific. Studies show that sandbar sharks are a long-lived species with low fecundity and are very susceptible to overfishing (Springer 1960, Casey et al. 1985, Sminkey and Musick 1995, 1996; McAuley et al. 2005, 2006). Marine habitats in the region have experienced high levels of disturbance and are quickly deteriorating due to major impacts from development activities (Sheppard et al. 2010). Corals in the UAE and Arabian Gulf have severely declined due to the increasing frequency of mass bleaching events caused by rising water temperatures, which is a consequence of climate change, as well as pervasive coastal development (Riegl et al. 2018, Burt et al. 2019).

Information pertaining to threats specific to the UAE are unavailable. This species is impacted by target (for fins and their valuable meat) and bycatch fisheries that are active elsewhere in its range. Inshore fisheries are generally intensive throughout the Arabian Sea region, and in some areas, fishing effort is increasing. Marine habitats in the Gulf are experiencing high levels of disturbance and quickly deteriorating due to major impacts from development activities (including dredging and reclamation), desalination plants, industrial activities, habitat destruction through the removal of shallow productive areas and major shipping lanes (Sheppard et al. 2010).

Subject to generalised persecution of carnivores (shooting, trapping, poisoning) by livestock owners and farmers. Habitat in the Hajar Mountains is being lost, degraded and fragmented by quarrying, road building, and residential and tourism development.