This species favours coastal zones, including rocky, muddy and sandy beaches, as well as mudflats (Richardson 1990, del Hoyo et al. 1996, Aspinall and Porter 2011). In smaller numbers, it can also be found at inland wetlands like sewage treatment plants, ponds, marshes and standing water (Richardson 1990, del Hoyo et al. 1996, Aspinall and Porter 2011). There is no information available about its diet in the UAE; elsewhere during the non-breeding season, the species takes insects, spiders and annelid worms, as well as molluscs, crustaceans and occasionally small fish and tadpoles (del Hoyo et al. 1996). Outside of the breeding season the species forages singly, in small groups or occasionally in larger flocks of up to c.1,000 individuals, especially at roosting sites or when feeding on fish (Hayman et al. 1986, del Hoyo et al. 1996, Snow and Perrins 1998). The species is migratory. It breeds between March and August solitarily or in loose colonies in swampy areas of north-central Eurasia (Hayman et al. 1986, Richardson 1990, del Hoyo et al. 1996). It leaves the breeding grounds from June to October, and returns from the wintering grounds between February and April (Hayman et al. 1986). Some non-breeding individuals may remain in the non-breeding grounds over summer (Pedersen et al. 2017).

This species occurs along the coast, where it frequents tidal mudflats, coastal creeks, sandy beaches and estuaries (Richardson 1990, Aspinall and Porter 2011). It is rarely found at freshwater sites (Richardson 1990). There is no information available about its diet in the UAE; elsewhere the diet consists of annelids, bivalves and crustaceans, although the species will also take cranefly larvae and earthworms on grasslands and occasionally larval amphibians and small fish (del Hoyo;et al.;1996). The species is migratory; birds start arriving in the UAE by mid-July from its breeding grounds in the tundra of northern Scandinavia and the Taymyr Peninsula in northern Russia (Richardson 1990). During the non-breeding season, the species is gregarious; flocks of over 1,000 individuals are regularly observed between August and April at Khor Dubai (Richardson 1990).

This species is closely associated with humans and is able to rapidly adapt to modified habitats (Jennings 2010). In the UAE, it mainly inhabits the outskirts of villages and palm groves, but also towns, gardens, parks, oases and agricultural land (Jennings 2010, Aspinall and Porter 2011). It is also found in natural habitats, like dense shrubby vegetation with scattered trees. It avoids very open habitat like desert or large cultivated fields, where it clusters around tree clumps and grain silos (Jennings 2010). It feeds on the ground, where it takes mostly seeds, but also human food scraps from rubbish bins; elsewhere it is known to feed on fruits, nectar, plant material and insects (Jennings 2010). It breeds year-round, but primarily between February and July (Jennings 2010). The nest is a frail, thin platform of roots, twigs and grasses placed in a bush or tree up to 15 m above the ground (Baptista et al. 1997, Jennings 2010). It may also nest on buildings under the eaves, on window ledges, drainpipes, beams, over doorways or in cracks in walls (Snow and Perrins 1998, Jennings 2010). Clutches contain almost always two eggs; only occasionally up to four eggs have been recorded. The species has multiple broods per year (Jennings 2010).

This species is found in rocky country with scattered trees, in open wooded areas, stony wasteland, wadis, semi-desert, sandy desert with rocky outcrops and cultivated areas (Jennings 2010, Aspinall and Porter 2011). Its diet includes small vertebrates like rodents, bats, reptiles and birds, but also invertebrates like beetles, locusts, grasshoppers, ants, scorpions, spiders and solifugids (Jennings 2010). The species is monogamous and breeds mainly between March and June, but exceptionally breeding behaviour may be observed already in November (Jennings 2010). It nests in tree holes, preferably of Ghaf trees, caves, rock crevices, animal burrows and holes in abandoned buildings or vehicles (Jennings 2010, Aspinall and Porter 2011). No nesting material is used; instead the eggs are laid in a scrape in debris like droppings, feathers and prey remains (Jennings 2010). There is no information available about clutch size in the UAE; elsewhere usually, clutches are three to six eggs (Holt;et al.;2014).

This species is aerial during the day, when it is found over a variety of habitats, including over ponds, sewage lagoons, irrigated cropfields, along busy roads, over coastal saltflats with scattered saltbush, over the sea and over coastal stacks (Jennings 2010). There is no information available about its diet in the UAE; elsewhere it takes flies, mosquitoes, ants and bees (Jennings 2010). Records of adults entering nest crevices suggest that the main breeding period lasts from February to July. Nest have not been described for the UAE, but elsewhere they consist of grass, feathers and debris, which are glued together with saliva (Jennings 2010). The preferred nesting sites include natural rock crevices, but also man-made sites like buildings and towers (Jennings 2010, Aspinall and Porter 2011). Clutches may contain two to three eggs (Jennings 2010). The species is migratory; immediately after breeding in the UAE or other parts in the Middle East, it returns to the wintering grounds in west and central Africa.

Throughout the year, this species occupies open country such as well-watered meadows, grass patches on roadsides, damp areas near rivers and sewage lagoons, but also woodland, olive and palm groves, parks and gardens, or oases (Jennings 2010, Aspinall and Porter 2011). It requires the presence of features offering perches, drinking water, shade, nest-sites and accessible food. The species can tolerate hot, arid conditions, but only for short periods during migration (Jennings 2010). It feeds almost entirely on animal matter, primarily large insects and their larvae and pupae (Snow and Perrins 1998, Jennings 2010). While the species has no serious competitor for food resources, it may have to compete for nest sites with exotic species like mynas Acridotheres spp. or Common Starling Sturnus vulgaris (Jennings 2010). The species is monogamous, solitary and a territorial breeder. It breeds between January and August; nestlings have been reported in the UAE in February (Jennings 2010). It nests in natural holes in stumps, trees, walls, old buildings, cliffs, among boulders, in abandoned vehicles, drain pipes, wells, roof spaces and nest boxes, and occasionally in places like a lawn sprinkler cavity, a roll of carpet and a fountain, and may use the same site for several seasons (Jennings 2010, KriÅ¡tín;and Kirwan 2015). The nest may be unlined or lined with some debris from the crevice (Snow and Perrins 1998, Jennings 2010). In Arabia, clutches contain five to seven eggs (Jennings 2010).

This species occurs in wetlands, from salt marshes to fresh and brackish inland ponds, lakes, ditches and standing water (Richardson 1990, Aspinall and Porter 2011), including dams in the Hajar Mountains. It is rarely found on tidal creeks and lagoons (Richardson 1990). There is no information available about its diet in the UAE; elsewhere during winter, the species mainly takes the seeds of aquatic plants (e.g. emergent and submerged macrophytes), grasses, sedges and agricultural grains (del Hoyo et al. 1992, Kear 2005). The species is migratory; individuals winter in the UAE between September and April before returning to their breeding grounds in Eurasia, where they breed from May onwards in single pairs or loose groups (Madge and Burn 1988, Richardson 1990, del Hoyo et al. 1992). Outside of the breeding season, the species forms large concentrations, with large flocks of 30-40 and sometimes hundreds of individuals gathering at winter roosting sites (Brown et al. 1982, Madge and Burn 1988).

The species is found in permanent shallow freshwater wetlands like marshes, lakes, ponds, reservoirs, but also in shallow coastal creeks and lagoons (Richardson 1990, Aspinall and Porter 2011). Usually, copious submerged aquatic vegetation sheltering abundant planktonic invertebrates is a valuable habitat characteristic (Johnsgard 1978). There is no information available on its diet in the UAE; elsewhere, it consists of small aquatic invertebrates such as adult and larval insects, molluscs, planktonic crustaceans, the seeds of emergent and aquatic plants, annelids, amphibian spawn, tadpoles, spiders, fish and the vegetative parts of aquatic plants (Johnsgard 1978, Brown et al. 1982, del Hoyo et al. 1992, Snow and Perrins 1998, Kear 2005). The species is highly migratory. Individuals wintering in the UAE mainly breed in solitary pairs or loose groups between April and June in central Asia (Madge and Burn 1988, del Hoyo et al. 1992). During autumn migration, migrant individuals pass through the UAE between August and October, travelling on a broad front (Richardson 1990, Scott and Rose 1996). In the UAE, the species usually occurs in flocks of more than 60 individuals at preferred sites (Richardson 1990, Richardson and Aspinall 1998); it generally often congregates when feeding or at stop-over sites on migration (Madge and Burn 1988, Kear 2005). It forages diurnally and roosts communally at night (Brown et al. 1982).

In the UAE, this species is most often found at estuaries, ponds, reservoirs, creeks, lagoons and water treatment plants (Richardson 1990, Aspinall and Porter 2011). It requires water less than 1 m deep for foraging (Snow and Perrins 1998). There is no information available about its diet in the UAE. In general, the species is omnivorous and opportunistic, feeding by dabbling in water and by grazing on the land (del Hoyo et al. 1992, Snow and Perrins 1998). Elsewhere, its diet consists of seeds and the vegetative parts of aquatic and terrestrial plants, as well as terrestrial and aquatic invertebrates such as insects, molluscs, crustaceans, worms and occasionally amphibians and fish (del Hoyo et al. 1992). The non-breeding population native to the UAE is migratory, leaving its breeding grounds in the western Palaeartic in September/October and returning in February/March (Richardson 1990). During migration and in winter, the species can be found in small to very large flocks numbering up to several hundred of individuals (Madge and Burn 1988, Richardson 1990, Richardson and Aspinall 1998, Snow and Perrins 1998). The species may also roost both nocturnally and diurnally in communal groups when not breeding (Brown et al. 1982).An introduced population breeds in early spring in various locations near human sites in Dubai and Abu Dhabi emirates (Richardson 1990, Richardson and Aspinall 1998, Jennings 2010), and chicks are present from late March on (Richardson 1990). While there is not much known about the breeding behaviour of the introduced population (Jennings 2010), usually the nest is a shallow depression or bowl of vegetation that can be situated in many different locations such as within vegetation on the ground, in natural tree cavities, under fallen dead wood, on tree stumps, under bushes and even in abandoned nests of other species (e.g. herons or crows) (Brown et al. 1982, Flint et al. 1984, del Hoyo et al. 1992, Snow and Perrins 1998). Nests are generally placed close to water (Kear 2005).

This species inhabits shallow coastal areas and estuaries (Smith and Heemstra 2003). Spawning occurs at sea and juveniles settle in estuaries (Whitfield 1998). Adults inhabit full marine habitats, but also travel to estuaries for feeding (Day et al. 1981, Dames et al. 2017). Its maximum standard length is at least 70 cm (Nodo et al. 2017), longevity is 15 years and sexual maturity occurs at 3 years of age and 30-40 cm total length (Day et al. 1981). A study conducted in Oman reported lengths at 50% maturity of 44.2 cm for males and 42 cm for females (Al-Nahdi et al. 2010). When applying an age at first reproduction of 3 years and longevity of 15 years, its estimated generation length is 9 years based on the following equation recommended by the IUCN Red List methods: Age at first reproduction + (Age at last reproduction -“ age at first reproduction)/2.