This demersal species inhabits mostly shallow coral and rocky banks, can be associated with non-reefal and turbid habitat, and is not known from well-developed coral reefs (Randall 1995). Juveniles can be commonly taken in estuaries. Its maximum standard length is 87 cm (Richu et al. 2018). Life history data are lacking, but due to similarities, Epinephelus maculatus is considered an appropriate proxy to estimate generation length. The age at first maturity for E. maculatus females is 2.8 years and males is 4 years and longevity is 13 years (Rhodes et al. 2016). When applying an age at first reproduction of 3 years and longevity of 13 years, its estimated generation length is 8 years based on the following equation recommended by the IUCN Red List methods: Age at first reproduction + (Age at last reproduction -“ age at first reproduction)/2. Off India, Richu et al. (2018) estimated the longevity as 9.7 years and Kandula et al. (2015) reported a total length at first sexual maturity of about 36 cm.

The Bentfin Devil Ray is usually pelagic or epipelagic in shallow, productive, neritic waters of <100 m depth (Notarbartolo di Sciara 1988, Croll et al. 2016), although it is also caught in offshore pelagic waters (Mas et al. 2015), and around seamounts in the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (Mendonça et al. 2012). Segregation by size and sex is seasonal, with all size classes and sexes appearing together during the summer months (Notarbartolo di Sciara 1988). The species is observed either solitarily or in small groups (2-“6 individuals); it is not a schooling species (Notarbartolo di Sciara 1988). Maximum size is reported to at least 189 cm disc width (DW) and both females and males are estimated to mature at around 154 cm disc width (DW), while size at birth is estimated at 65-“85 cm DW (Notarbartolo di Sciara 1988, Last et al. 2016). Size at 50% maturity was estimated at 153.8 cm DW for males (White et al. 2006b). The mode of reproduction is matrotrophic viviparity. Embryos obtain nutrients initially via yolk, then through absorption of enriched uterine fluid from the mother (Wourms 1977). Only the left ovary is functional and litter size is one pup after a 12-month gestation period (Wourms 1977, Notarbartolo di Sciara 1988). It is estimated that the maximum intrinsic population growth rate (r_max) of devil rays is similar to manta rays, and these productivity rates are among the lowest of all chondrichthyans (Dulvy et al. 2014, Pardo et al. 2016). Mating, parturition, and early life history are reported to take place in the shallow water during summer and perhaps early autumn (Notarbartolo di Sciara 1988).For the Spinetail Devil Ray (up to 310 cm DW), Cuevas-Zimbrón (2012) estimated age at maturity to be 5-“6 years and a minimum lifespan of 14 years, giving a generation length of 10 years. While accurate age at maturity and longevity information is unavailable for the Bentfin Devil Ray, it can be inferred according to the smaller maximum size that it would be close to but slightly shorter than that of its congener. As there are not enough data to estimate an exact generation length for this species, an approximate, suspected generation length is used. A midway point of 7.5 years between a very conservative low of five years, and the larger Spinetail Devil Ray's 10-year generation length is suspected to be the approximate generation length for the Bentfin Devil Ray until more accurate information becomes available.

This species is benthopelagic and occurs over the continental shelf, often close inshore. It is typically solitary or small aggregations (not usually in the very large aggregations like other cownose rays) (Last et al. 2016). Litter size is 1-2 pups per litter (R. W. Jabado unpubl. data), but it is unknown if reproductive periodicity is annual or biennial. It reaches at least 165 cm disc width (DW) (Last et al. 2016). Generation length estimated to be ~15 years based on the smaller (110 cm DW) R. bonasus (Fisher et al. 2014).

This species inhabits coral reefs typically along continental coastlines and large islands (Carpenter et al. 1997a, Grandcourt et al. 2005). Juveniles often occur in estuaries over sand, mud and gravel substrate and amongst mangroves (Kailola et al. 1993, Randall et al. 1997). It primarily consumes fishes, shrimps, crabs and other benthic crustaceans (Grandcourt et al. 2005). Its maximum total length is 172 cm and is a diandric protogynous hermaphrodite (Grandcourt et al. 2009). Juvenile sexual differentiation in this species can be significantly influenced by social factors (Liu and Mitcheson 2011). In the Arabian Gulf, it has been aged to at least 22 years (Mathews and Samuel 1991, Grandcourt 2006, M. Abdullah pers. comm. 2010). Females reach first maturity at 4 years and 34 cm total length. Males reach maturity at 67.5 cm and 7.5 years and transition occurs at 50 to 75 cm at 4 to 8 years of age (M. Abdullah pers. comm. 2010). McIlwain et al. (2015) reported a size and age at 50% maturity for females of 58 cm total length and 4 years. Based on a longevity of 22 years, age of first maturity of 4 years, and applying the mean generational turnover formula in Depczynski and Bellwood (2006), one generation length is estimated to be 12.5 years. It forms seasonal spawning aggregations in the Arabian Gulf from March to June (Heemstra and Randall 1993, Grandcourt et al. 2009).

The Zebra Shark occurs in tropical and subtropical, shallow inshore and offshore waters, often found on and around coral and rocky reefs and on sandy plateaus near reefs, at depths down to at least 62 m. It is often observed resting on the bottom as well as swimming near the surface as both juveniles and adults. The species undergoes seasonal movement patterns, forms aggregations and demonstrates strong site fidelity to particular reefs (Dudgeon et al. 2013), which may make them more susceptible to targeted fishing.The Zebra Shark is an oviparous species. Size at birth ranges between 20 and 36 cm total length (TL). Reproductive periodicity in the wild is unknown. Captive aquaria animals have demonstrated annual egg laying periods of up to 3 months with 40-“80 eggs laid per year (Robinson et al. 2011) with up to 25% of eggs resulting in hatchlings (L. Squire Jnr pers. comm. 22/07/2014). Age of maturity of captive female sharks is approximately 6-8 years of age based on the commencement of egg laying (Thomas pers. comm. 18/02/2015, Robinson pers. comm. 11/01/2015) and 7 years of age for males (Watson pers. comm. 18/02/2015). Adults reach a maximum size of 246 cm TL with no sexual dimorphism evident (Dudgeon et al. 2008) and live over 28 years in aquaria (Thomas pers. comm. 17/02/2015). Generation length estimates based on 6 years first age at maturity and 28 years maximum longevity for female sharks is 17 years.

The Snaggletooth Shark occurs on the continental shelf from inshore waters to 130 m depth (Compagno 1998). This species attains 281 cm total length (TL), with males maturing at approximately at 122-131 cm TL (Jabado et al. 2016). This viviparous species has a seasonal reproductive cycle, producing 2 to 11 (mean = 6) young per litter. Size at birth is up to 38 cm TL (Henderson et al. 2004). Smart et al. (2013) provided age and growth data for specimens caught off the east coast of Queensland (Australia). Growth appears to be quite rapid, with maturity reached in 2-“3 years. Maximum observed age was 15 years. Generation length is estimated to be 9 years based on age data from Smart et al. (2013).

The Bowmouth Guitarfish has an intertidal and coastal distribution. It generally occurs close inshore and around coral reefs to about 90 m (Fricke et al. 2011). It occurs on or close to the seabed, mainly over sandy or muddy substrates. Very little is known about the life history characteristics of this species. However, it is a large species growing to at least 294 cm total length (TL) and is lecithotrophic viviparous (Compagno and Last 1999, Jabado 2018). Males mature between 150 and 175 cm TL, and one pregnant female was recorded with 9 mid-term embryos ranging between 27-31 cm TL (Last and Stevens 2009). A single new born individual of 53 cm TL has been recorded from Bahrain (Randall 1995). Further research on the biology and life history of this species is needed.Maximum age for Rhynchobatus spp. in Australia is 5 years (males) and 12 years (females), but these data were not from the largest individuals (White et al. 2014) and are not reliable for the estimation of generation length for rhinids. This is therefore estimated from the maximum age (19 years) and age at maturity (7 years) taken from the growth curve provided by White et al. (2014) for the Giant Guitarfish (Glaucostegus typus), which gives an estimated generation length of 13 years.

The Bramble Shark is a deepsea species that occurs primarily on continental and insular slopes at depths of 200-900 m, although it has been found as shallow as 18 m (usually in colder water) and as deep as 1,214 m (Kabasakal 2005, Ebert and Stehmann 2013). Examination of landings from Kochi Fisheries Harbour, Kerala, India, recorded a maximum size of 318 cm total length (TL); female maturity (L₅₀) at 189 cm TL; male maturity at 187 cm TL; size at birth 42-46 cm TL (Akhilesh et al. 2013). Reproduction is viviparous with litter sizes of 10-36 pups (Akhilesh et al. 2013). Age data are not available for the species, but generation length is estimated as 30 years following Ferretti and Buscher (2015, 2016).

The Graceful Shark is an inshore species that occurs on continental and insular shelves to a depth of 75 m (Ebert et al. 2013). It attains a maximum size of 243 cm total length (TL) (Jabado et al. 2015). Males mature about 140-177 cm TL and females at 167- 204 cm TL (Ebert et al. 2013, Jabado et al. 2015). Size at birth is probably 50-60 cm TL (Ebert et al. 2013). There are no age data available for this species, so generation length is inferred from the closely related Blacktip Shark (C. limbatus) from Indonesia at 13 years (Smart et al. 2015).

The occurrence of this species appears to be patchy with localized hotspots (Chin 2014). Juveniles appear to be site-attached, and highly resident to small areas of shallow coastal mud and mangrove habitats (Cerutti-Pereyra et al. 2014). It has been recorded from coral reefs, sandy reef lagoons, beaches, mud flats and mangroves, at depths of ~1 m to at least 30 m (O'Shea 2013, Cerutti-Pereyra et al. 2014, Chin 2014).The Porcupine Ray reaches a maximum size of at least 115 cm disc width (DW) with females mature by ~100 cm DW and males at ~90 cm DW (Last and Stevens 2009). Little else is known of the biology of this species. Attempts to collect size-at-age data from vertebral counts have proved difficult due to the fragile nature of vertebra (O'Shea 2013). Using data from the Brown Stingray (Dasyatis lata), a related species from the Pacific as a proxy, generation length for the Porcupine Ray is inferred to be 21.5 years (Dale and Holland 2012).