Within the UAE, the greatest threat to this species likely comes from changes in land-use but the severity of such threats are essentially unknown. Globally though, the species faces a range of threats which are driving its decline at the global level; and such threats may have an impact on individuals that visit the UAE: this species suffered past declines as a result of land-use intensification, wetland drainage and egg collecting (del Hoyo et al. 1996). Land-use intensification remains a problem: today it is threatened by reduced breeding productivity as a result of intensifying and changing agricultural practices (del Hoyo et al. 1996), especially the improvement of grasslands (e.g. by drainage, application of inorganic fertilizers and reseeding) (Baldi et al. 2005), increased growing of ""winter-crops"" (see Eggers et al. 2011), and loss of field margins and semi-natural habitat. Important migratory stop-over habitats for this species on the Baltic Sea coastline are threatened by petroleum pollution, wetland drainage for irrigation, land abandonment and changing land management practices leading to scrub overgrowth (Grishanov 2006). Clutch destruction may also occur during spring cultivation (using machinery) on arable fields (del Hoyo et al. 1996). The species is susceptible to avian botulism so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the disease (Hubalek et al. 2005). The species is hunted for commercial use (to be sold as food) and for recreational purposes in Iran (Balmaki and Barati 2006).

Within the UAE the main threats to this species are likely to due coastal land-use changes and potentially oil pollution, but the severity of these threats to this species is uncertain. Globally, the population is declining very rapidly, predominantly due to development of the East Asian-Australasian Flyway (especially in the Yellow Sea), but the degree of impact this has on the population that visits the UAE is unknown. The species is also potentially threatened by climate change because it has a geographically bounded distribution: its global distribution is restricted to within c. 10^o latitude from the polar edge of continent, within which 20-50% of current vegetation type is projected to disappear under doubling of CO₂ levels (BirdLife International unpublished data).

The greatest threats to the species within UAE are likely to be development on wilderness land, and reductions in insect populations as a result of agricultural intensification and future declines in water availability (Aspinall 1996, Fry and Boesman 2014, BirdLife International 2015). Outside of UAE large numbers are shot each year on migration (e.g. Tucker and Heath 1994), and in the wider Arabian Peninsula the species may be persecuted as an apiary pest (Symes et al. 2015).

Changes in land-use and the possibility of oil pollution could affect this species in UAE, but the severity of these threats towards this species is unknown.;Individuals that visit the UAE are also likely to impacted by threats operating outside of the country. Long term declines in its global range (outside of the UAE) are thought to be due to chemical and biological river pollution. The two main sources of this are most likely industrial waste disposal and agricultural chemical runoff. Canalization of streams and clearance of emergent vegetation to improve drainage result in loss of feeding habitat and nesting habitat (although the latter is not relevant to the population in UAE), and declines in fish numbers (Tucker and Heath 1994). It is also at risk locally from persecution to protect fish stocks (Woodall 2016).

The only known breeding site for this species within the UAE was in the process of being filled in with rubbish in 1996 (Aspinall 1996), and indeed the species potentially no longer breeds in the country (Pedersen et al. 2017). Land use changes could be a threat to this species, as could invasive species such as Mynas, which may be impacting the species by providing competition for nesting sites, while reductions in insect populations may mean a reduction in food availability. Individuals that are now reported in the country are non-breeding visitors, but they face threats from outside of the country that could have an impact on this visiting population.;Threats outside of the country include persecution on migration in some Mediterranean countries and hundreds, perhaps thousands, are shot for food in Oman every spring (del Hoyo et al. 2001).;The loss of suitable breeding habitat due to changing agricultural practices, conversion to monoculture, loss of nest sites, and agricultural intensification and the use of pesticides (reducing food availability) are considered to be the main threats to the species in Europe (E. Racinskis in litt. 2005,;Kovacs;et al.;2008), and the impact of these threats in the UAE requires research. The species is sensitive to loss of hedgerows and riparian forest in Europe, which provide essential habitats for perching and nesting.

Within the UAE the main threats to the species are likely from land-use changes and possibly oil pollution, but the severity of these threats are essentially unknown.Across its global range the species faces a large number of threats, outlined below; but it is highly uncertain to what extent such threats impact individuals that visit the UAE.The species is threatened by the degradation and destruction of well-vegetated shallow pools and other wetland habitats(Vinicombe 2000,;del Hoyo et al. 1992,;Kear 2005, Robinson and Hughes 2006)(e.g. changes to the vegetation community, disruption of water regimes, siltation, and increased water turbidity [Robinson and Hughes 2006]) as a result of excessive drainage and water abstraction(Vinicombe 2000,;Grishanov 2006, Robinson and Hughes 2006), peat extraction(Grishanov 2006), eutrophication (from inadequate sewage treatment and nutrient run-off [Robinson and Hughes 2006]), oil pollution(Grishanov 2006), dam and barrage construction, the building of infrastructure on flood-plains (Vinicombe 2000, Robinson and Hughes 2006) and river canalisation(Kear 2005). Changing land management practices such as reed cutting and burning during the breeding season (Petkov 2006), over-grazing (Robinson and Hughes 2006) decreased grazing and mowing of wet meadows(Grishanov 2006), and abandonment (causing succession to scrub) or intensification (causing reversion to open water) of extensively managed fishponds(Vinicombe 2000,;Kear 2005, Petkov 2006, Robinson and Hughes 2006) also threatens the species. The introduction of non-native species has caused further habitat degradation. For example the stocking of lakes with and accidental introduction of Grass Carp Ctenopharyngodon idella has resulted in reductions in macrophyte biomass and corresponding reductions in invertebrate biomass(Kear 2005, Robinson and Hughes 2006), and in Bulgaria an introduced shrub (Desert False Indigo Amorpha fruticosa) is changing the ecological character of wetlands (Robinson and Hughes 2006). Introduced predators such as the Wels Catfish Silurus glanis (Kazakhstan) that predate ducklings, and the Muskrat Ondatra zibethicus (Aral Sea region) have also caused population declines (Robinson and Hughes 2006). Increased drought due to global climate change may pose a threat to the species in part of its range(Vinicombe 2000, Robinson and Hughes 2006). Disturbance by fishing boats and anglers alongside fringe vegetation could cause abandonment of the breeding sites or disrupt the timing of breeding (N. Petkov in litt. 2008). Hunting is another serious threat to the species(Vinicombe 2000,;del Hoyo et al. 1992, Robinson and Hughes 2006). Large numbers are shot on passage in the autumn (e.g. through the Volga delta) and on some wintering grounds^;(Kear 2005, Balmaki and Barati 2006). Other lower-level threats include lead poisoning (from ingestion of discarded lead shot), fires in areas of reed thickets, peat bogs and woods (Grishanov 2006), entanglement and drowning in fishing nets (Robinson and Hughes 2006<strong style="""">)<strong style=""""> and hybridisation with native species (e.g. Tufted Duck Aythya fuligula and Common Pochard Aythya ferina in Switzerland [Leuzinger 2010]).

Overfishing is a major threat to this species in the Arabian Gulf, including the UAE (Al-Husaini et al. 2015). The inshore habitats that this species utilizes are seriously degraded in the UAE and elsewhere in the Arabian Gulf region. Corals in the UAE and Arabian Gulf have severely declined due to the increasing frequency of mass bleaching events caused by rising water temperatures, which is a consequence of climate change, as well as pervasive coastal development (Riegl et al. 2018, Burt et al. 2019).

Overfishing is a major threat to this species in the UAE (Grandcourt et al. 2014). Coastal development has been pervasive in the UAE and Arabian Gulf region, and this may impact the inshore habitats this species utilizes.

In the Gulf, the major threats to corals include extreme and increasing temperature variability due to climate change, as well as direct destruction and increased turbidity caused by coastal construction (Riegl et al. 2012). Although bleaching thresholds in the Gulf are the highest recorded in the world (Riegl et al. 2012), bleaching events in the UAE have resulted in significant mortality (such as in 1996-1998, 2002, 2010 and 2017) and slow recovery (Burt et al. 2008) as well as shifts in community structure (e.g,. Bento et al. 2016, Grizzle et al. 2016, Burt et al. 2019 ). In Abu Dhabi, the most recent coral bleaching event resulted in nearly 95% of corals bleaching, and by April 2018, mortality reached 73% (Burt et al. 2019). This event resulted in mass mortality of even the more stress-tolerant corals such as poritids and merulinids (Burt et al. 2019). Coastal development, particularly large-scale offshore real estate developments and sedimentation associated with reclamation, has directly buried coral reefs in the Gulf (Burt et al. 2008, 2013; Burt 2014; Burt and Bartholomew 2019). In the Sea of Oman, UAE reefs have experienced major hurricanes and harmful algal blooms that caused high coral mortality and shifted community structure (Bauman et al. 2010, Foster et al. 2011).Globally, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. Other threats include the crown-of-thorns starfish (Acanthaster planci), which has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus Acropora (Colgan 1987). These voracious predators of reef-building corals are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts have become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within since the 1990s (Green and Bruckner 2000, Porter et al. 2001, Sutherland et al. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001b, Porter et al. 2001, Patterson et al. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis et al. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby et al. 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis et al. 2004), supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.

In the Gulf, the major threats to corals include extreme and increasing temperature due to climate change, as well as direct destruction and increased turbidity caused by coastal construction (Riegl et al. 2012). Although bleaching thresholds in the Gulf are the highest recorded in the world (Riegl et al. 2012), bleaching events in the UAE have resulted in significant mortality (such as in 1996-1998, 2002, 2010 and 2017) and slow recovery (Burt et al. 2008) as well as shifts in community structure (e.g,. Bento et al. 2016, Grizzle et al. 2016, Burt et al. 2019 ). In Abu Dhabi, the most recent coral bleaching event resulted in nearly 95% of corals bleaching, and by April 2018, mortality reached 73% (Burt et al. 2019). This event resulted in mass mortality of even the more stress-tolerant corals such as poritids and merulinids (Burt et al. 2019). Coastal development, particularly large-scale offshore real estate developments and sedimentation associated with reclamation, has directly buried coral reefs in the Gulf (Burt et al. 2008, 2013; Burt 2014; Burt and Bartholomew 2019). In the Sea of Oman, UAE reefs have experienced major hurricanes and harmful algal blooms that caused high coral mortality and shifted community structure (Bauman et al. 2010, Foster et al. 2011).Globally, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. Other threats include the crown-of-thorns starfish (Acanthaster planci), which has been observed preferentially preying upon corals of the genus Acropora (Colgan 1987). These voracious predators of reef-building corals are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. Populations of the crown-of-thorns starfish have greatly increased since the 1970s and have been known to wipe out large areas of coral reef habitat. Increased breakouts have become a major threat to some species, and have contributed to the overall decline and reef destruction in the Indo-Pacific region. The effects of such an outbreak include the reduction of abundance and surface cover of living coral, reduction of species diversity and composition, and overall reduction in habitat area. Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within since the 1990s (Porter et al. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland et al. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter et al. 2001, Patterson et al. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis et al. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby et al. 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis et al. 2004), supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.