The Spotted Eagle Ray is highly susceptible to a variety of inshore demersal fisheries, including trawls and gill nets. Its small litter size, schooling behaviour, inshore habitat and hence availability to a wide variety of inshore fishing gear (beach seine, gillnet, purse seine, benthic longline, trawl, etc.), and the generally intense and unregulated nature of inshore fisheries across large parts of the species' range, pose significant risks to the Arabian Sea population. The occurrence of this species in coral reef areas make it susceptible to habitat degradation and coastal development, pollution, and the effects of climate change (Normile 2016). In the Arabian Gulf, there are major impacts from from development activities (including dredging and reclamation), desalination plants, industrial activities, habitat destruction through the removal of shallow productive areas and major shipping lanes (Sheppard et al. 2010). Corals in the UAE and Arabian Gulf have severely declined due to the increasing frequency of mass bleaching events caused by rising water temperatures, which is a consequence of climate change, as well as pervasive coastal development (Riegl et al. 2018, Burt et al. 2019).

While the most relevant potential threat to the species in UAE waters is from oil spills, breeding colonies may be affected by a range of threats, which in turn could impact individuals that visit UAE. Collection of eggs and hunting of adults from breeding colonies (Carboneras et al. 2018) is thought to be causing slow and significant declines. Masked Boobies are sensitive to human disturbance, with visitors passing within 10-20 m causing birds to leave their nest (Borsa et al. 2010); however, this is not believed to be significantly affecting the population in the UAE. Invasive species, primarily House Rats Rattus rattus, also could pose a threat as has been noted in some parts of its range;(for example on Clipperton Island, following the eradication of feral cats Felis catus;[Pitman et al. 2005]).

The most relevant threats to this species within UAE are potentially from wetland land-use changes, and possibly oil pollution at coastal sites, bycatch and marine debris (plastic) at sea, although the severity of these threats is essentially unknown.Individuals that visit UAE may also be impacted upon by other threats. It has been reported that colonies in the east of the global range are frequently raided for eggs and the species is hunted in the Ukraine (Rudenko 2006, Burger et al. 2018). It has also, previously been culled to protect other Larus species, however this has not been recorded recently. Numerous small oil spills have been reported to cause mortality in the species, for example in Azerbaijan (Burger et al. 2018), though this appears to have minimal impact on the population trend.

Desert encroachment and development is likely impacting suitable breeding habitat for the species (Aspinall 1996), while the increase in desert activities such as dune driving could negatively impact the availability and quality of its habitat (R. Sheldon;in litt. 2019). Failure of rain is also expected to exert a negative impact on the population (S. Alam in litt. 2019).;Outside of the UAE, in the wider Arabian Peninsula, hunting is considered to be a significant threat (Symes et al. 2015), but the degree of impact on the individuals that visit the UAE is uncertain.

Changes in wetland land-use could affect this species in UAE, but the severity of such a threats towards this species is unknown.The species also faces a range of threats globally, which could impact individuals that visit the country. Since 1970, European populations have fallen, most likely due to habitat destruction and pollution, however these alone do not explain its overall European decline. Recreational activities such as fishing and swimming are also a threat as is the intensive commercial use of water areas (e.g. reed cutting, fish farming), river regulation measures and eutrophication (Bauer et al. 2006).

Within the UAE, there are no known significant threats to this species (Aspinall 1996), although montane development potentially could have an impact.

The intensification of modern agricultural techniques has driven habitat loss and declines in this species in some areas within its global range (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997), but it is unknown whether individuals that visit UAE are impacted by this threat. Overgrazing outside of Protected Areas may have an impact on this species.

Within the UAE degradation of its habitat is the main threat to the species (Aspinall 1996). However, any individuals that might visit the country as non-breeders (e.g. on passage) are affected by a range of other threats (see BirdLife International 2015). For instance, the clearance and burning of bushes, groves and hedges, and the drainage of of land for agricultural expansion has intensified within its European range, while pesticide use there may also adversely affect populations (BirdLife International 2015).

It is uncertain whether this species is impacted by any specific threats within UAE. It does face a range of threats across its global range, all of which could impact individuals that visit UAE, and these are described below.The species suffered a marked decline in northern Europe in the 19^th-20^th centuries, due to habitat loss and persecution (Snow and Perrins 1998, Ferguson-Lees and Christie 2001). In Europe, changes in agriculture and land use have reduced the extent of suitable hunting habitat. In addition, snake populations have been reduced by increased cultivation of monocultures, hedge destruction, agricultural intensification and the abandonment of traditional farmland and subsequent afforestation. Habitat fragmentation in Europe has resulted from forest fires and road construction. Nest destruction and powerlines represent additional threats (Tucker and Heath 1994). It is also vulnerable to the effects of potential wind energy development (STRIX 2012).

All global threats are likely to be relevant to a discussion of the species's current status within UAE, as they may have historically contributed to its disappearance as a natural breeding species within the country, and may continue to impact individuals that visit the country naturally during the non-breeding season. The principal global threat outside of the UAE is from hunting, largely but not exclusively on the species's wintering grounds (Judas et al. 2009). Large numbers are also trapped, mainly in Pakistan and Iran, and shipped to Arabia for use in the training of falcons (Combreau 2007). In 2014 an illegal shipment of 240 birds was intercepted en route from Pakistan to Bahrain (Shafaeipour et al. 2015). In parts of the region, fast-paced development related to the growth of the petroleum industry has reduced the availability of undisturbed habitats and further exacerbated the species's decline. Oil exploration, road building, oil and water pipelines, mining and quarrying activities, powerlines and the general disturbance caused by four-wheel drive vehicles have all been identified as significant auxiliary threats. Powerlines in particular may be a significant threat (Aspinall 1996, M. Koshkin in litt. 2016). Preliminary data from Uzbekistan suggests that powerlines may contribute to species mortality (Burnside et al. 2015).Livestock grazing is reported to have a negative impact on the species, both indirectly, by degrading the desert vegetation on which birds rely for food and concealment, and directly, through the trampling of nests and disturbance of nesting females (Lavee 1988). Recent research on the effects of pastoralism on this species in the Kyzylkum Desert in Uzbekistan, however, has found that low intensity livestock grazing may not widely degrade rangelands at a landscape scale (Koshkin et al. 2014) and has no effect on male abundance and female nesting success (Koshkin et al. 2016a,b). In Iran, loss of habitat to croplands, mainly through the planting of pistachio, has been judged to be a significant threat (Mansoori 2006); however, it has also been found that the species exploits other crops such as alfalfa and salad rocket (Aghanajafizadeh et al. 2010). In Saudi Arabia, eggs and nests are predated by a range of mammalian predators (M. Zafar-ul Islam in litt. 2016).Within the UAE itself, the main threats that have been identified come from habitat loss, although conversion of its habitat to agricultural land could actually benefit the species as they may use alfalfa fields for feeding. The tiny breeding population size itself creates the risk for genetic drift. There are also risks that need to be carefully monitored surrounding to what extent released individuals may be adapted to human care - for instance increasing the risk of collisions with vehicles if released individuals approach too closely - and there is a risk of disease spreading through the population when individuals congregate in high densities in certain areas, such as feeding stations.