The Shortfin Devil Ray is an uncommon inshore, primarily shelf pelagic species found in continental coastal areas but not extending into the epipelagic zone (Compagno and Last 1999). This species reaches a maximum size of about 119 cm disc width (DW) (White et al. 2006b). Males mature at 103-“119 cm (DW) (White et al. 2006b, Notarbartolo di Sciara et al. 2017) and size at birth is around 31 cm DW (Compagno and Last 1999). As with all Myliobatiformes, the reproductive mode of M. kuhlii is livebearing and histotrophic, with embryonic nutrition supplied from a protein- and lipid-rich histotroph from highly developed trophonemata. A single, relatively large pup is produced per litter (Compagno and Last 1999, White et al. 2006b). Intrinsically, Manta and Mobula rays have among the lowest productivity of any chondrichthyan (Pardo et al. 2016). Long resting periods may account for extended reproductive cycles in mobulid species. As there are not enough data to estimate an exact generation length for this species, an approximate, suspected generation length is used. A midway point of 7.5 years between a very conservative low of five years, and the larger Spinetail Devil Ray's 10-year generation length is suspected to be the approximate generation length for the Shortfin Devil Ray until more accurate information becomes available (Cuevas-Zimbron et al. 2013).

The Arabian Carpetshark occurs in coastal waters in coral reefs, lagoons, rocky shores, muddy bottoms and mangrove estuaries from 2-100 m. This shark is less than 10 cm total length (TL) at birth, but grows to a maximum length of 80 cm TL (Weigmann 2016). Females mature at 52 cm TL and males at about 55 cm TL (Moore and Peirce 2013). The species is oviparous, with single egg cases developing in each uterus. It appears to be closely associated with coral reefs. Age data are not available, but generation length is estimated as 9 years using data from the similar-sized White-spotted Bambooshark (C. plagiosum) (Chen et al. 2007).

This species is frequently a dominant species of back reef margins, lagoons and some fringing reefs, and generally can be found to depths of 30 m. It is one of the predominant framework builders, sometimes building monospecific reef frameworks or contributing to pocilloporid reef building (Glynn 2001). It is a relatively slow-growing species with reported growth rates of 8.4 mm/year in Costa Rica and 8.1 mm/year in the Galápagos; however, it can grow as fast as 14 to 19 mm/year during the first few years (Guzmán and Cortes 1993, Cortés and Guzmán 1998, Guzmán and Cortés 1989). This species utilizes a gonochoristic reproductive strategy (except from Caño Island, Costa Rica), and is presumably a broadcaster spawner (Glynn et al. 1994). Glynn et al. (1994) suggested that eastern Pacific populations appeared to be reproductively active over multiple annual intervals, including periods of relatively low temperature. According to Glynn et al. (1994), fecundity can vary between regions; P. lobata has higher fecundities at Caño Island, Costa Rica, and Uva Island, Panama, than in the Galápagos Islands, where water temperatures are lower and more seasonally variable. Moreover, Glynn et al. (1994) suggest that P. lobata reproduces twice per year in thermally high and stable environments. Fecundity of this coral appears to benefit from moderate sea warming events, but may decline dramatically during unusually strong thermal anomalies (Glynn et al. 1994). After 1983, observations of sexual recruitment have been rare to infrequent in the eastern Pacific; however sexual recruitment has been observed in some areas of the Galápagos Islands (Glynn et al. 1994). The almost complete absence of sexual recruitment for this species in the eastern Pacific may be due to high larval mortality in the water column; as well as increased levels of competition with benthic alga, and increased densities of grazers and bioeroders following the 1982-83 El Niño event (Glynn et al. 1994).Porites lobata can also reproduce asexually by fragmentation (Guzmán and Cortés 1989, Cortés and Guzmán 1998, Cortés and Jiménez 2003). In the eastern Pacific the incidental feeding activities of the triggerfish Pseudobalistes naufragium can generate fragments that survive to form new colonies (Guzmán and Cortés 1989, Cortés and Guzmán 1998, Glynn et al. 1994). This form of fragmentation is common in Costa Rica and Panama, but uncommon in the Galápagos Islands (Glynn et al. 1994). Fragmentation also occurs by initial weakening of colonies by bioeroders; P. lobata colonies possess high densities of boring bivalves (Lithophaga spp.), which erode the skeletal structure, a process that can also lead to fragmentation (Cortés and Jiménez 2003, Glynn et al. 1994).At least eight fish species feed on live corals, with their feeding strategies ranging from removing mainly live tissue and causing little damage to the skeleton, to abrading or breaking apart colonies in the feeding process, such as during feeding of Arothron meleagris and Pseudobalistes naufragium (Guzmán and Cortes 1989, Glynn 2001). It is commonly grazed by the puffer Arothron meleagris (Guzmán and Robertson 1989, Glynn et al. 1994).The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Therefore, any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years.

This species occurs with P. lobata and P. australiensis on back reef margins, lagoons and fringing reefs, generally to depths of 30 m. It is commonly found from 1-15 m, with massive colonies at 3-5 m in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam (Titlyanov and Titlyanova 2002). In American Samoa, one colony is known to be 6.5 m tall and 41 m circumference (D. Fenner pers. comm. 2008).The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Therefore, any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years.

The Longfin Mako is a poorly-known epipelagic, tropical and warm-temperate shark, and its full depth range is unknown (Compagno 2001). It attains a maximum size of at least 427 cm total length (TL). Both males and females have been reported to mature at >245 cm TL with the smallest mature male observed at 225 cm TL (Varghese et al. 2017). It is aplacental viviparous with oophagy and uterine cannibalism, and a pregnant female may have 2 to 8 embryos per litter. Size at birth is recorded at 97 to 120 cm TL (Compagno 2001). It has been suggested that females may approach land to pup (Compagno 2001). The generation length is suspected to be around 25 years, based on that of the Shortfin Mako (Isurus oxyrinchus) (Natanson et al. 2006).

The Blotched Fantail Ray is benthic around coral reef habitats, seamounts and on sand substrates mostly at depths of 20-60 m (although records from depths to 400 m in pelagic longlines near seamounts exist) (Compagno et al. 1989, Last and Compagno 1999, Last et al. 2016). It reaches a maximum size of 180 cm disc width (DW) (Last and Stevens 2009). Males mature at 100-110 cm DW and size at birth is 30-35 cm DW (Last et al. 2016). It is a viviparous species, with reported litter size of up to seven young (Compagno et al. 1989). Age data are not available, but generation length can be estimated using data from another large dasyatid, the Brown Stingray (Dasyatis lata), females of which mature at 15 years and reach 28 years (Dale and Holland 2012), giving an estimated generation length of 21.5 years.

The Longtail Butterfly Ray occurs in shallow, inshore waters to a depth of at least 30 m, typically on sand or mud substrate (James 1966, Last et al. 2016). Its attains a maximum size of 104 cm disc width (DW) with males maturing at about 35 cm DW and females at 41 cm DW (Last et al. 2016). Size at birth is reported at 22-26 cm DW, but little else is known about the biology of this species. Fecundity appears to be low, being reported up to seven pups/litter, and females are known to commonly abort embryos upon capture. It is important to note that biological information on this species requires clarification as life-history traits vary greatly in the available literature and there might be some unresolved taxonomic questions regarding the species in the Arabian Sea region (e.g., Henderson et al. 2016, Last et al. 2016, Muktha et al. 2018). Generation length is estimated from the similar-sized Backwater Butterfly Ray (Gymnura natalensis) from South Africa that matures at 6 years and reaches a maximum age of 24, yielding a generation length of 15 years (van der Elst 1988).

The Grey Sharpnose Shark is a small species that is very common in muddy littoral waters to depths of at least 36 m. It attains a maximum size of 93 cm total length (TL) with males maturing at 45-53 cm TL (Moore et al. 2012, Kizhakudan et al. 2015). It is a viviparous species that produces 3-7 young each year. Pups are born at around 25-30 cm (Kizhakudan et al. 2015). No age data is currently available, and a generation length of 4 years is estimated based on the closely related Milk Shark (Rhizoprinodon acutus) (Compagno 1984, Last and Stevens 2009).

The Milk Shark is a common continental shelf species that mostly inhabits muddy waters in coastal areas to about 50 m depth (Weigmann 2016). Across its range, it is reported to reach a maximum size of 178 cm, however, in the Arabian Seas region, the largest specimen recorded is 98 cm TL (Jabado et al. 2015). Females reach maturity between 59.7-74 cm TL and males between 60-76.5 cm TL (Henderson et al. 2006, Moore et al. 2012, Jabado et al. 2015, Shaaban et al. 2018, Sen et al. 2018). Off northwest India, it reaches maturity at the end of its second year and is a moderately fast-growing species of shark (Sen et al. 2018). Its natural mortality rate off northwest India was estimated as 0.61 year^-1 (Sen et al. 2017). It has a very productive life history being born at around 35-37 cm TL, maturing at young ages (2-3 years), producing 2-8 young every year and living up to 10 years (Henderson et al. 2006, Kizhakudan et al. 2015). Generation length is estimated at 5.25 years (Compagno 1984, Last and Stevens 1994).

The Tawny Nurse Shark occurs on or near coral reefs, particularly in crevices and caves, and seagrass lagoonal habitat at depths of less than 70 m. The species reaches a maximum length of at least 320 cm total length (TL), with males maturing at 250 cm TL and females at 230-290 cm TL. This species is ovoviviparous (aplacental viviparity), giving birth to 1-4 pups per litter (Teshima et al. 1995, Compagno 2001), and size at birth is 40-80 cm TL. Generation length is estimated at 30 years based on age data from Ginglymostoma cirratum (Carrier and Luer 1990).