Within the UAE, the main threats to this species are likely to be from coastal land-use changes and possibly oil pollution, but the severity of these threats is essentially unknown. Impacts from fisheries bycatch and marine plastic pollution require further research.Outside of the UAE the species is impacted by other threats which could impact individuals that visit UAE. As only a few colonies exist each year, this tern is highly vulnerable to anthropogenic disturbance (Garthe and Flore 2007) and is known to abandon eggs en masse (Gochfield et al. 2018). This species has also suffered declines due to egg collecting and hunting, which are locally significant in some areas of its range (Gochfield et al. 2018).

Changes in coastal land-use, fisheries bycatch, and the possibility of oil pollution and marine debris (plastic) could affect this species in UAE, but the severity of these threats towards this species is unknown. Pallas's Gull is also at risk from avian influenza (Chen et al. 2006).

The Sooty Gull is vulnerable to oil spills (Aspinall 1996, Javed et al. 2005) and is at risk of habitat degradation due to land reclamation for oil prospecting and development (Aspinall 1996, Javed et al. 2005). Introduced species (such as cats and rodents) can be a threat, and the species has been impacted by egg collecting and persecution (although it has been stopped at some sites) (Aspinall 1996, see also Environment Agency - Abu Dhabi 2016).

Changes in coastal land-use and the possibility of oil pollution could affect this species in UAE, but the severity of these threats towards this species is unknown. Climate change is likely to have an effect on this species in the future.

Changes in coastal land-use and the possibility of oil pollution could affect this species in UAE, but the severity of these threats towards this species is unknown. Outside of the UAE, it is also threatened in its breeding range by shrinkage and deterioration of suitable habitats (due to eutrophication and the overgrazing of shore meadows), and by increased human recreational disturbance due to the building up of breeding sites (trampling and disturbance often lead to increased hatchling predation and abandonment of nests) (Ronka 1996). The species is also susceptible to avian influenza and may therefore be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus (Melville and Shortridge 2006). Climate change could have an impact on this species in the future.

Within its European range, the breeding success of this species is not well known, but there are indications that an overall increase of common gulls, crows and mammalian predators has led to increased nest predation (BirdLife International 2015). Anthropogenic habitats in the wood processing industry are subject to unpredictable changes that can drive small-ranged populations to extinction within a short period of time (BirdLife International 2015). However, the most relevant threats within UAE are changes in coastal land-use and the possibility of oil pollution, but the severity of these threats towards this species is unknown. Climate change may have an impact on this species in the future.

Changes in coastal land-use and the possibility of oil pollution could affect this species in UAE, but the severity of these threats towards this species is unknown.Individuals of this species that over-winter in UAE are also impacted by a range of threats outside of the country (e.g. on their breeding ground). The species is threatened by the loss and fragmentation of moorland habitats as a result of afforestation (del Hoyo et al. 1996, Johnsgard 1981) and of marginal grassland habitats as a result of agricultural intensification and improvement (Johnsgard 1981,Baines 1988,;del Hoyo;et al.;1996) (e.g. drainage, inorganic fertilisation and reseeding) (Baines 1988). The species also suffers from high egg and chick mortalities due to agricultural practices (e.g. Tuellinghoff and Bergmann 1993, Grant 1997, Fisher and Walker 2015), human disturbance (Boschert and Rupp 1993) and higher predation rates if nesting on improved grasslands or in fragmented landscapes (del Hoyo et al. 1996, Valkama and Korpimäki 1999, Douglas et al. 2014). Conversely, some populations have declined following abandonment of farmland and subsequent increases in the height of vegetation (Broyer and Roche 1991), rendering large areas unsuitable for nesting. Climate change is projected to have a large negative impact on this species during the breeding season (Huntley et al. 2007, Renwick et al.;2012). Expansion of renewable energy projects including wind farms can also have an impact, although more studies are required (Pearce-Higgins et al. 2009). The species has also suffered population declines as a result of hunting (Johnsgard 1981), and is susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus (Melville and Shortridge 2006).

Within the UAE, the main threats to this species may be from changes in coastal land-use, and potentially oil pollution; but the severity of such threats are uncertain.Given knowledge of the species's global status, a range of other threats outside of the UAE could be impacting individuals that visit the country. Loss of nesting habitat owing to wetland drainage and agricultural intensification, and conversely abandonment in some parts of the range, are the most significant threats (Mischenko 2008,;Kentie et al. 2013). Detrimental activities include the conversion of wet meadows to arable land and loss of habitat to development (Tucker and Heath 1994), increased fertilisation and drainage of grassland;(Roodbergen and Teunissen 2014), earlier and more frequent cutting as farmers adapt to climate change (Kleijn;et al.;2010), spring burning and scrub encroachment (A. Mischenko;in litt.;2007);and possibly disturbance by walkers (Holm and Laursen 2009).;On intensively grazed pastures, trampling is a major cause of nest loss, and a switch to monoculture on arable land reduces the supply of insects on which the species feeds (Kentie;et al. 2013).;In some areas, grassland turnover from 'natural, flower-rich, diverse and wet' to silage monoculture leads to a loss of nests with eggs and chicks due to mowing and to starvation of chicks due to a lack of food (Schekkerman and Beintema 2007).;A study in the central regions of European Russia suggests that a significant decline in spring flood levels during the last two decades, as a result climate change, has strengthened the negative impact of agricultural abandonment (A. Mischenko in litt. 2016).;Habitat fragmentation may cause problems for this species, which nests in dispersed colonies and sub-colonies as protection against predators, hence productivity may be low in such areas. Indeed, sink locations have been documented for the species, where birds recruited from good quality habitat disperse to low quality habitats (often suffering high predation), effectively losing these individuals to the population. This has repercussions for the effectiveness of agri-environment measures (Kentie;et al. 2015, Leigh;et al. 2017). There is a marked decrease in the density of breeding birds near to roads, particularly those with heavy traffic (van der Zande;et al.;1980, Reijnen;et al. 1996). Natal philopatry means that a decrease in local recruitment could prove catastrophic for individual breeding sites (Kruk;et al.;1998).Threats on migration include pollution, human disturbance, habitat reclamation for tidal energy plants, aquaculture ponds, land conversion for agriculture, urban expansion and agricultural intensification at rice paddies.;Hunting has been another significant threat, although France has now followed the rest of the European Union (EU) in implementing a five-year ban on hunting of the species, beginning in 2008 (I. Burfield in litt. 2008), which was extended in 2013 for a further five years. Outside the EU, hunting is known to occur, but its scale and impact is unknown. Water pollution is probably an issue in parts of the species's range (H. Hötker in litt. 2005), although the effects of the release of some pollutants, like untreated sewage, on the species may be minor as long as there are several alternative prey present at a site (Alves et al. 2012).

The species is not thought to face any significant threats. Artificial habitats that favour this species within the UAE may be transient, so monitoring of such habitats will be important.

While some of the following threats are taken from BirdLife International (2015) or are not taking place within the UAE, they are potentially impacting the population that overwinters in UAE while they are outside of the country. In parts of Europe, the species is threatened by habitat loss as a result of tidal barrage schemes (Kear 2005, Burton 2006), but changes in coastal land-use are also taking place in UAE which may be impacting the species. It also;is susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus (Melville and Shortridge 2006). Hunting within its range outside of the UAE could also pose a threat (e.g Iran; Balmaki and Barati 2006). Additionally, oil pollution is a potential threat to wetland ecosystems in UAE.