Sheppard et al. (2010) reported on the unprecedented changes to Arabian Gulf marine and coastal habitats over the past decade, which has seen rapid industrial development, large-scale land reclamation, coastal infrastructure, tourism and housing development, and long-term fisheries activities, all of which have caused widespread loss and degradation of benthic habitats. Seagrass habitats in the Arabian Gulf have suffered as a consequence though there are no published reports on the scale of these impacts or the extent and rates of decline (Erftemeijer and Shuail, 2012). The species faces a range of significant threats in UAE waters; Boat strikes In Abu Dhabi, it was found that 20% of all stranded turtles died from vessel strikes. EPAA Sharjah is in the process of concluding a three-year study on the impact of boat strikes on marine turtles, including this species (EAD 2016). Boat strike occurrence on the eastern coast of Sharjah is also frequent. Fisheries bycatch The full extent of impact on green turtle populations is not yet well understood in the UAE, but recent assessments in the Gulf region raise concerns about the potentially high impact that fisheries bycatch may have on turtles (83.6% of bycatch composition, representing ~ 4,726 captures year; Abdulqader et al. 2017).On the east coast, fishers report that turtles are often caught, but that they are released alive. Entanglement and ingestion of marine debris The understanding of the level of impact of marine debris and entanglement on marine turtle is limited for the region, but recent findings of marine debris ingestion by green turtles indicate a potentially high level of interaction between these turtles and marine debris along the Gulf of Oman coast of the UAE (Yaghmour et al. 2018a,b).In Abu Dhabi, 52% of marine turtle mortalities were attributed to entanglement in abandoned fishing gear. A recent EPAA study found that sea turtles may also be caught in abandoned gargoor fish traps (EAD 2016, Yaghmour et al. 2018b). Coastal development Green turtles are typically associated with seagrass beds that grow in shallow waters and therefore are affected by coastal development. Turtles have been found within water intakes of desalination plants but it is not known if this species is impacted by this threat. Natural threats relevant to the UAE Green turtles are also subject to natural threats. The Arabian Gulf undergoes extreme water and air temperature fluctuations, which present climate-related challenges to species diversity and distribution. Many smaller turtles strand in the Arabian Gulf from cold-stunning in the winter months (Robinson et al. 2017), although these threats may not be so significant to this species. At the global scale, the species may be impacted by a range of threats, however, the impact of these threats on animals found in UAE waters is not known. Pollution and pathogens Marine pollution and debris that affect marine turtles (i.e. through ingestion or entanglement, disorientation caused by artificial lights), as well as impacts of pervasive pathogens (e.g. Fibropapilloma virus causing Fibropapillomatosis) on turtle health, although there are no records at present of this virus in UAE waters.The EPAA Sharjah is in the process of concluding a three-year study on the impact of oil spills on marine turtles which include this species. Marine debris (plastics, ropes, is a significant threat to this species. A study from the east coast found 86% of dead individuals found contained marine debris. Climate change Current and future impacts from climate change on marine turtles and their habitats (e.g. increasing sand temperatures on nesting beaches affecting hatchling sex ratios, sea level rise, storm frequency and intensity affecting nesting habitats, etc.). A primary turtle foraging habitat, seagrass beds, is known to be sensitive to increasing temperatures (Arias-Ortiz et al. 2018).

The main threats to the North West Indian Ocean Loggerhead subpopulation are represented by fisheries (as bycatch), egg predation and collection, and coastal development (Hamann et al. 2013), although quantification of the impact to the subpopulation within UAE marine territory is not available.Threats to Loggerheads vary in time and space, and in relative impact to populations. Threat categories affecting marine turtles, including Loggerheads, were described by Wallace et al. (2011) as: Boat strike In Abu Dhabi, it was found that 20% of all stranded turtles died from vessel strikes (EAD 2016). The EPAA Sharjah is in the process of concluding a three-year study on the impact of boat strikes on marine turtles, including this species. Fisheries bycatch and targeted fisheries In Abu Dhabi, 52% of marine turtle mortalities were attributed to entanglement, however, no loggerheads were found in this study (EAD 2016). The impact of incidental capture of marine turtles in fishing gear targeting other species (bycatch) is not known. The impact of ghost fishing gear requires further research. Coastal development There has been rapid and extensive coastal development within UAE coastal areas. It is likely that this has impacted turtle habitat, but there is no information available on this. In addition, human-induced alteration of coastal environments due to construction, dredging, beach modification, etc. may impact this species.Turtles have been found within water intakes of desalination plants but it is not known if this species is impacted by this threat. Pollution and pathogens Marine pollution and debris affect marine turtles (i.e., through ingestion or entanglement, disorientation caused by artificial lights). The EPAA Sharjah is in the process of concluding a three-year study on the impact of oil spills on marine turtles which include this species. Oil spills represent a significant threat to marine turtles. The impacts of pervasive pathogens (for example, the fibropapilloma virus) on turtle health in the UAE requires further research. Climate change Current and future impacts from climate change on marine turtles and their habitats (increasing sand temperatures on nesting beaches affecting hatchling sex ratios, sea level rise, storm frequency and intensity affecting nesting habitats, etc.) in the UAE requires further research, especially with regard to the already high surface water temperature, as the Arabian Gulf regularly experiences sustained sea surface temperatures of over 30'°C (Pilcher et al. 2014).The relative impacts of individual threats to all Loggerhead subpopulations were assessed by Wallace et al. (2011). Fisheries bycatch was classified as the highest threat to Loggerheads globally, followed by coastal development and human consumption of eggs, meat, or other products. Due to lack of information, pollution and pathogens were only scored as affecting three subpopulations and climate change was only scored for two subpopulations. Enhanced efforts to assess and reduce the impacts of these threats on Loggerheads should be a high priority for future conservation efforts.

The main threats to cetaceans in UAE waters include: incidental mortality in trawl, drift and anchored gill nets, depletion of prey populations (due in part to commercial overfishing); ship and boat strikes, disturbance due to underwater noise (including that from vessel traffic, drilling, piling, military operations and seismic activity related to offshore oil and gas exploration). Inshore and shallow-water species are further potentially threatened by entanglement in abandoned fishing gear, coastal development including port and harbour construction, dredging, land reclamation, residential and tourist development, and pollution (especially hydrocarbons). A lack of information (e.g. population size and trend, the location of critical habitats, and feeding ecology) hinders the development of appropriate conservation actions, but this should be used as an excuse for inaction.

Uncontrolled hunting is considered responsible for the decline of the species across its regional range. Overgrazing is also a major factor in many areas (IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group 2017a). The increasing construction of roads and fences has likely had a serious impact on the habitat through fragmentation and preventing access to the limited supplies of water. There may be a risk of infectious diseases such as PPR, brucellosis, through contact with domestic livestock.

There is no information available on threats to this species.

Unknown. The increasing extent and intensity of urban lighting may have a negative impact on nocturnal flying invertebrates, the main prey base. Species in the mountains may be affected indirectly by falling water tables due to over-abstraction and reduced precipitation.

Unknown. The increasing extent and intensity of urban lighting may have a negative impact on nocturnal flying invertebrates, the main prey base. Species in the mountains may be affected indirectly by falling water tables due to over-abstraction and reduced precipitation.

The main threats to cetaceans in UAE waters include: incidental mortality in trawl and drift nets, depletion of prey populations (due in part to commercial overfishing); ship and boat strikes, offshore oil and gas exploration; noise from shipping, submarine sonar and oil and gas rigs. During surveys by EAD, a large number of dolphins were observed with scars that were attributed to propeller cuts, indicating that vessel strike is a major threat to dolphin populations in Abu Dhabi waters (EAD 2015). Inshore and shallow-water species are further threatened by entanglement in abandoned fishing gear; coastal development including port and harbour construction, dredging, land reclamation, residential and tourist development; pollution (oil and hydrocarbons) and damage to feeding grounds and reefs. A UAE Fisheries Resource Assessment Survey in 2002 found that fish stocks in the Gulf had declined by 60%. A lack of information on most species (e.g. population size and trend, the location of critical areas, and feeding ecology) hinders the development of appropriate conservation actions.

Unknown. The increasing extent and intensity of urban lighting may have a negative impact on nocturnal flying invertebrates, the main prey base. Species in the mountains may be affected indirectly by falling water tables due to over-abstraction and reduced precipitation.